Glossary

/c/
Whenever a letter is placed between two slashes, it refers to the sound the letter makes and not the letter itself. Sometimes people say “cuh” for /c/, or “tuh” for /t/, instead of just the initial sound. This leads to confusion.
“c”
Whenever a letter is placed between quotation marks, it refers to the name of the letter. If we see “c,” we would say /see/ because that’s the name of the letter. For the purposes of this book, we have chosen to highlight the use of alphabet symbols by using a different font rather than quote marks, so instead of writing “c,” “a,” “t,” spells “cat,” we would write c, a, t, spells cat.
Accelerated Reader
A widely-used software program for schools that gives students a computerized comprehension quiz on thousands of different books. It automatically keeps score of points earned. Its companion program, STAR Reading, assesses students’ ZPD in a quick, on-line multiple-choice quiz that adjusts to students’ reading ability as students take the quiz.
accommodation
A way to adapt existing curriculum and class routines to meet the needs of a struggling student.
Adequate Yearly Progress
A minimum level of improvement that states, school districts, and schools must achieve each year, according to the federal “No Child Left Behind” (NCLB) legislation.
affixes
Word parts added to the beginning of words (prefixes) or the end of words (suffixes) which alter the meaning of the root word. For example: the word “turn” becomes “returned” when the prefix, “re” (meaning to do it again) and the suffix “ed” (meaning it happened in the past) are added.
alphabetic principles
Another name for “phonics,” which is the study of how alphabetic symbols relate to specific sounds in predictable patterns.
auditory input
Cognitive data we receive through our ears.
autism
A developmental disorder showing three types of symptoms: (1) impaired social interaction, (2)problems with verbal and nonverbal communication and imagination, and (3) unusual or limited activities and interests.
automaticity
Skilled or complex behavior which can be performed with little conscious awareness.
background knowledge
See prior knowledge.     
benchmarks
A specific level of student achievement given in a detailed description of expected outcomes.
CBM – Curriculum-based Measurement
A type of curriculum-based assessment using frequent and direct measurement of skills; often includes one-minute timed samples of reading, math, and writing skills.
chunking
Breaking longer words into meaningful parts such as compound words, onsets, rimes, suffixes, and syllables.
cognition
The process of receiving information through our senses and turning that data into knowledge we retain.
cold read
Reading material that is unfamiliar to the reader.
comprehension
The reason for reading: understanding what the words mean.
conceptual relationships
Understanding how words relate to each other. Another skill which falls under this category is the ability to use context clues.
configuration clues
Using the shape of a word to determine its meaning.
context clues
Using the meaning of the words around an unknown word to determine its meaning.
core curriculum
The required subjects for any particular grade level.
criterion-referenced test
A test that measures student performance in relation to a set standard. It is not generally used to compare a student’s performance against other students.
cross-age tutors
Using older students to tutor younger students.
CVC word
A word composed of a consonant, then a vowel, and a consonant on the end.
decodable
Reading material that only uses words that students have the necessary phonics skills to break apart. (If a word is used that isn’t decodable with existing skills, it should be taught ahead of time.)
decoding
The ability to make sense of a printed word, also called “word attack” skills. There are several decoding skills which affect reading: semantics, syntax, conceptual relationships, phonological processing, morphological properties, structural analysis, and configuration.
DIBELS – Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills
A set of subtests developed by University of Oregon Center on Teaching and Learning to determine at what level children read, and whether they’re on track for becoming proficient readers.


Name of Test Grade Levels Description
Initial Sound Fluency
ISF		 Preschool to
Middle of Kindergarten		 Identify which picture out of four begins with a target sound. Example: /g/
Letter Naming Fluency
LNF		 Beginning of Kindergarten to
Middle of Kindergarten		 Identify as many letters as possible on a page by name in one minute.
Phoneme Segmentation Fluency
PSF		 Middle of Kindergarten to
End of First Grade		 Break as many words as possible into phonemes in one minute after teacher says each word.
Nonsense Word Fluency
NWF		 Middle of Kindergarten to
Beginning of Second Grade		 Read as many nonsense words as possible in one minute. All the “words” are
CVC* or VC.*
Oral Reading Fluency ORF Middle of First Grade through Sixth Grade and beyond Read as many words as possible in three one-minute passages. Their score is the middle score (median). Only correct words count.

differentiated instruction
The process of teaching in a way to meet the needs of students with differing abilities in the same class.
digraph
Letters (either vowels or consonants) that combine to make only one sound (consonant digraphs th, sh, ch, tch, and vowel digraphs ai, ay, ey, eigh).   
diphthong
Two adjoining vowels that have two distinct sounds, but they blend well so it’s hard to separate them (oi, oy, ow as in cow, ou as in out).
double dose
A class for students who needed extra support in reading or math, over and above the time allotted during general education classes. (Students should not be removed from core reading or math classes to go to double dose.)
dysgraphia
A difficulty with writing.
dyslexia – complete definition
A specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge. (Source: International Dyslexia Association at <www.interdys.org>.)
dyslexia – simple definition
A reading difficulty in a child or adult who otherwise has good intelligence, strong motivation, and adequate schooling. (Source: Dr. Sally Shaywitz, Overcoming Dyslexia, Vintage Books, 2003, p. 132.)
ELL – English Language Learners
Students not proficient enough in English to be able to succeed in a regular classroom without some extra help in the language.
fidelity
In relation to education, it usually refers to using curriculum and assessments as they were intended to be used with the same amount of intensity from one teacher to the next.
fluency
The ability of a student to read accurately and quickly.
grapheme
The smallest unit of written language, i.e. the alphabet letter in English.
hands-on manipulatives
Physical objects a student can handle and move around in order to solve a problem, or make the learning acitivity less abstract.
heterogeneous group
Grouping students together who have different ability levels, interests, etc.
homogeneous group
Grouping students with similar abilities, interests, etc.
homonyms or homophones
Two words that sound the same, but are spelled differently (for example: “sale” and “sail”).
I.E.P. – Individual Education Program
A written plan setting out specific educational goals for a student with learning disabilities. The plan is written by a team consisting of parents, teachers, school administrators, and other interested parties. It should be reviewed once a year.
Intensive
Category name from Three-Tier Model for students functioning significantly below grade level.
intervention
Specific materials, methods, or curriculums geared to the needs of struggling readers.
kinesthetic input
Cognitive data we receive from our muscles and how they move in relation to each other.
mainstreaming (also known as “inclusion”)
The practice of placing students with disabilities into the general education classroom.
metacognition
Awareness of your own thought processes. (Thinking about your thinking.)
morphological properties
Words are formed by parts that contribute to its meaning (for example: suffixes, root words, compound words, and syllables).
multisensory-simultaneous instruction
Presenting information while using more than one sense at the same time. For the purposes of this book, it refers to the visual, auditory, and kinesthetic-tactile senses being used at the same time to input information into our brains.
NAEP – National Assessment of Educational Progress
A test given to randomly selected fourth and eighth grade students in many schools across the nation (see chart on page).
NCLB – No Child Left Behind
Legislation setting performance guidelines for all schools which mandates annual student testing and a plan for underachieving schools. It also requires all teachers and assistants to be “highly qualified.”
neurobiological
describes the biological study of the nervous system.
norm-referenced assessment
An assessment which compares an individual’s performance against the performance of a larger group of peers.
On–level
Category name from Three-Tier Model for students functioning at grade level standards.
onset
All the consonants before the first vowel of the syllable. In the word stripe,str is the onset.
ORF – Oral Reading Fluency
A form of CBM that gives students a grade-leveled passage to read for one minute. The students’ ability is scored by subtracting the words read incorrectly from the total number of words read. This score is usually identified as WCM (Words Correct Per Minute).
Orton-Gillingham Method
A multisensory approach to remediating dyslexia created by Dr. Samuel Orton, a neurophychiatrist and pahtologist, and Anna Gillingham, an educator and psychologist.
phoneme
The smallest unit of sound that can change the meaning of a word.
phonemic awareness
The ability to notice and think about individual sounds in a spoken word.
phonics
A method of teaching reading that emphasizes the predictable relationship between sounds and the alphabetic symbols in our language.
phonogram
A letter or group of letters that represent one phoneme (speech sound) (for example: the word bright is composed of four phonograms, /b/-/r/-/igh/-/t/).
phonological awareness
The ability to notice any sound units and work with them, such as syllables and affixes. (It includes phonemic awareness.)
phonological processing
The understanding of sounds used in language ranging from long chunks of sound (words), to smaller sounds (syllables), to phonemic awareness of every individual sound (phonemes).
physiological
Refers to understanding how a living organism works, including its structures and processes.
prefix
An affix or word part added before the beginning of the root word which slightly changes its meaning (for example: adding re to build becomesrebuild).
prior knowledge
Information we already have “filed” in our brain on any given subject.
probe
Another name for a CBM reading passage.
proctor
An adult volunteer, educational aide, or teacher who is only allowed to smile and listen to the student read every word aloud during a reading assessment.
prosody
Reading with natural rhythm, intonation, and expression.
Reading First
A federal education program in the United States that was mandated under the “No Child Left Behind” Act that focuses on putting proven methods of early reading instruction in primary classrooms.
repeated reading
The practice of reading a particular passage over and over again until a certain number of rereadings has occurred, or a specified level of fluency has been reached.
rime
The letters in a word or syllable after the onset (for example: in the wordstripe, ipe is the rime).
RTI – Response to Intervention (also called Response to Instruction)
The practice of (1) providing high-quality instruction/intervention matched to student needs and (2) using learning rate over time and level of performance to (3) make important educational decisions. These three components are RTI essentials.
rubric
A scoring guideline for assessing a student’s work that verbally describes specific standards for levels of quality to be expected.
scaffolding
Supporting students’ learning experience through the use of simplified language, teacher modeling, visuals and graphics, cooperative learning, and hands-on learning.
schwa
An unstressed vowel sound saying /uh/ and represented by the symbol ə.
semantics
The understanding a person has of the meaning of a word.
sight words
Words which the reader cannot decode with the alphabetic principles he or she already knows.
skills
Thinking processes we practice until they become automatic (without conscious thought involved).
Slingerland®
An Orton-Gillingham method developed by Beth Slingerland for teaching dyslexics to read (designed for use in the classroom).
SLD – specific language disability
A severe difficulty in some aspect of learning language which includes: listening, speaking, reading, writing, or spelling while other cognitive abilites are intact and age-appropriate.
SLD – specific learning disability
The official term used in federal legislation to refer to disabilities in certain areas of learning.
standardized test
A test that is given in the same format to all students.
Strategic
Category name from Three-Tier Model for students functioning slightly below grade level.
strategies
Thinking processes we use intentionally.
structural analysis
Using the structure of a word to determine its meaning (for example: looking for affixes and root words, or breaking a word into syllables—a term related to morphological properties).
suffix
An affix or word part added to the end of a word which slightly changes its meaning (for example: walk + er becomes walker).
summative testing
The practice of assessing student progress at the end (summation) of a time period.
syntax
Involves the parts of speech, determining the grammatical purpose of the word.
tactile input
Cognitive data we receive through using the sense of touch.
Three-Tier Model
One model of reading intervention in common use which identifies three layers of instruction and intervention needed by struggling readers. Some educators have named these layers as Intensive, Strategic, and On-Level. (See definitions.) Others have given the layers different names.
visual input
Cognitive data we receive through our eyes.
vocabulary
The knowledge of words and their meanings.
word family
Words that are related to each other. One type of word family changes the onset, but retains the same rime (for example: mat, chat, hat, rat, and splat).
ZPD – Zone of Proximal Development
A term developed by Lev Vygotsky in 1978 to denote the range between levels of what a child can accomplish with help and what they can do on their own. At instructional level in reading, a child would miss no more than one word out of ten. Independent level means they miss no more than one word out of twenty. The range in between is their ZPD. It assures that the reading material isn’t so easy or so hard that no growth would occur.
  • Independent: Students don’t pause for more than one out of twenty words on a page.
  • Instruction: Students don’t pause for more than one out of ten words on a page.
  • Frustration: Students pause for more than one out of ten words on a page.